Introduction

Indonesia, despite possessing significant undeveloped energy resources, faces a critical and multifaceted energy security issue that fundamentally impacts its economic development. This challenge is characterized by the need to address multiple dimensions of energy provision. When attempting to characterize energy security, the "4A indicators of accessibility, affordability, acceptability, and availability are widely utilized" [1]. Difficulties persist across all these metrics: accessibility is hindered by low electrification rates and inadequate distribution; affordability is complicated by high costs for low-income households and the sustainability of government subsidies; acceptability is a concern due to the environmental and health impacts of current energy sources; and availability is threatened by declining domestic production capacity and increasing reliance on imports. The existing energy supply system is primarily hampered by an over-reliance on fossil fuels, particularly petroleum, which poses a significant risk of destabilizing the national energy balance and consumption system. This over-reliance has led to significant socio-economic controversy surrounding energy fiscal policies and subsidies, with rising fuel prices fuelling public protests and economic harm. The government’s use of temporary measures like the Unconditional Cash Transfer (BLT) is considered by experts to be merely a short-term fix, underscoring the persistent need to address energy security and drive a technological transformation toward affordable, accessible, and environmentally friendly sources.

This investigation is guided by Actor-Network Theory (ANT), which was founded on the foundations laid by Callon [2] and further developed by scholars like Latour [3]. Originally referred to as the sociology of translation [4], ANT views the world as being composed of evolving networks where human actors (e.g., government agencies) and non-human entities (e.g., infrastructure, technologies, or "The Planet") interact and mutually shape reality. The central concept used is translation, defined as the process through which various actors are combined into a single entity via a sequence of talks, intrigues, and persuasive efforts. To structure the analysis of these dynamics, the study utilizes the Four Moments of Translation: Problematization, Interest, Enrolment, and Mobilization [5].

This research is crucial because it addresses a significant research gap: while ANT is increasingly applied across various fields, its application remains limited in the context of macroeconomic and national energy fiscal policy, with most existing research being firm-level or focused on information technology (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Description of actors with an involvement in energy policy

Рис. 1. Cубъекты, участвующие в энергетической политике

Research Questions and Objectives

Given the persistent energy controversy and the need for technological transformation, this study aims to investigate the complex socio-technical dynamics at play. The primary research question is:

How does the dynamics of the energy controversy in Indonesia affect the technical transformation in the energy industry?

To address this, the specific objectives are:

To investigate the role of key actors – specifically the 7th Commission of the House of Representatives, the Fiscal Agency of the Ministry of Finance, and PT PLN – and their influence on the emergence of the network in the energy controversy.

To analyse how the ANT translation process in the energy sector can help to revolutionize energy technology innovation in Indonesia.

To propose policy solutions, based on the ANT analysis, that promote sustainable economic growth and revolutionize innovation in Indonesia's energy sector.

Literature Review

Theoretical Framework: Actor-Network Theory

The conceptual framework for this study is grounded in Actor-Network Theory (ANT), a methodological approach significantly advanced by the empirical studies of Latour [3], Callon [2], and Law in the 1980s [6]. The primary objective of ANT is the robust study of collective sociotechnical processes. To achieve this, ANT employs the principle of generalized symmetry, which posits that social phenomena are best explained by focusing on the relationships between entities without resorting to macro- or micro-social determinism [7, 8]. This perspective maintains that all aspects of reality – including nature, society, technology, and policy – are a consequence of the ongoing interactions within groups of entities. For an ANT framework to be established, all entities must be granted a material significance in relation to one another, encouraging a relation of materiality or a material semiotic extension that views any complex outcome, such as "science," as a network of demonstrated actions.

ANT integrates the fundamental concepts of actors (or actants) and networks into its framework, where the relationship between parties is clarified by an intermediary. An actor is defined as a creator of an intermediate who imbues it with social value, thereby contributing to the network's description and composition [9]. Crucially, ANT's analytical perspective considers both human and non-human agency [9, 10, 11, 12]. While human agents are distinguished by their ability to consider options and plan for consequences, non-human or material agents, despite lacking cognitive alternatives, still possess agency. The relationship between these elements is essential, as "Actors and networks are, in fact, two different elements of the same phenomenon" [13]. The network itself is understood not as an anonymous sphere of power but as an accumulation of interactions materialized through various instruments, inscriptions, and formulas in highly localized practices. Furthermore, ANT moves beyond the traditional human-nonhuman dichotomy, investigating the coexistence of multiple forms of agency (human, symbolic, and machine) in heterogeneous actor networks [14]. In this framework, the widely assumed connection between agency and consciousness is rejected; instead, ANT views intention as an objective, goal-oriented action that, when materialized as objectification, allows the actant to assume the role of a "subject" [15]. This objective intention is central to how the mediated relationship between human and non-human elements influences behaviour.

The evolution and stabilization of these networks are analysed through the concept of translation, which is deconstructed into four distinct Moments [9]. First, Problematization occurs when an initiating actor successfully communicates a problem or issue to other actors, transforming it into a shared concern. Second, the moment of Interest is established when actors are persuaded of the action's relevance and choose to participate in the process. Third, Enrolment takes place as the players begin to study one another’s capabilities, allocate mutual obligations, and make commitments, often requiring them to overcome internal opposition. Finally, Mobilization is reached when the actor-network has been firmly established in both time and place, resulting in a convergent yet fundamentally diverse state achieved by all involved actors and mediators. These distinct interactions are considered the fundamental elements of reality, forming the basis for ANT's analysis of organizations, groups, machines, and other entities [16, 17, 18].

For the purposes of this study, three specialized ANT concepts are applied to examine the policy network in Indonesia's energy sector. The "obligatory passage point" (OPP) refers to the necessary intermediary that actors or objects must navigate to achieve their goals; in this research, this is defined by the intricate interactions among the 7th Commission of the House of Representatives, the Fiscal Agency of the Ministry of Finance, and PT PLN. The "dispositive" encompasses the comprehensive configuration of actors, objects, and technologies, representing the entire system involved in implementing energy fiscal policies and innovative technologies. Investigating the diapositive's impact will reveal how the current preference for fossil fuel systems may impede the efficient adoption of renewable energy. Lastly, the concept of a "spokesperson" refers to an individual or entity that assumes the role of an actor responsible for speaking and acting on behalf of other actors or objects within the network, a role critical for shaping and influencing policy outcomes.

The Four Moments of Translation and ANT Application

According to Callon [9], the ANT methodology can be deconstructed into four sequential Moments of Translation, which outline the process through which a heterogeneous network is formed and stabilized. The first is Problematization, the moment when an actor (the initiator) communicates a specific issue or problem to other actors, successfully transforming it into a shared concern by interpreting the situation's meaning for the others. Second, assuming the problematization is successful, the moment of Interest is established. During this phase, the initiating actors are responsible for persuading others of the relevance of the action, at which point eager actors may choose to participate in the process or abandon it entirely. Third, Enrolment takes place as the players begin to study one another's skills, allocate obligations, and make mutual commitments, which often involves confronting and managing distinct forms of opposition. Finally, Mobilization is reached when the network of players has been firmly established with a clear existence in both time and place. This final stage results in a state that is convergent but fundamentally diverse, a stable arrangement achieved by aligning the interests of both the actors and the mediators.

This study employs the ANT framework to investigate the intricate socio-technical dynamics among key institutional actors in Indonesia's energy sector : the 7th Commission of the House of Representatives, the Fiscal Agency of the Ministry of Finance, and PT PLN (a state-owned power company). The complex interactions and interdependencies between these entities are identified as the "obligatory passage points" (OPP) – the required intermediaries that actors or objects must navigate to achieve their objectives in energy policy and practices [19, 20, 21, 22]. For instance, the commission has the authority to propose and influence energy fiscal policies, which the Fiscal Agency and PT PLN subsequently implement.

Focus to this analysis is the concept of the "dispositive," which encompasses the intricate configuration of various actors, objects, and technologies critical in facilitating specific practices or yielding desired results. In the energy sector context, the dispositive refers to the comprehensive arrangement of actors (like government bodies and state-owned enterprises) and technologies (like generation, transmission, and distribution infrastructure) involved in implementing energy fiscal policies. The research will investigate the impact of this dispositive, particularly how the current preference for fossil fuel-based systems within energy fiscal policies may impede the widespread adoption of renewable energy technologies and lead to inefficiencies in financial strategies. Furthermore, the analysis will focus on the role of the "spokesperson" – an individual or entity responsible for speaking and acting on behalf of other actors or objects – in shaping and influencing the network dynamics and translating policy outcomes within the energy controversy.

Science and Innovation Policies in Indonesia

Previous science and innovation policies in Indonesia, particularly within the energy sector, have often proven to be inefficient, failing to adequately address the pressing challenges related to energy security, sustainability, and technological advancements. Consequently, there is a growing recognition of the urgent need for new policies capable of effectively guiding and fostering science and innovation. These contemporary policies aim to promote and support Research and Development (R&D) activities focused on sustainable and renewable energy sources. They also emphasize the critical importance of fostering collaboration between academia, industry, and government agencies. This collaborative approach encourages knowledge sharing, technology transfer, and the establishment of robust public-private partnerships, thereby leveraging the diverse expertise and resources of stakeholders to accelerate the development and deployment of innovative energy solutions. Furthermore, the new policies prioritize the creation of an enabling regulatory and financial framework. This involves streamlining bureaucratic processes, implementing supportive regulations, and providing incentives for investments in clean energy technologies. By cultivating a conducive environment for innovation and entrepreneurship, these policies are designed to attract private sector participation and drive the commercialization of sustainable energy solutions, ultimately seeking to harness science and technology to drive the nation's energy transition, promote economic growth, and address pressing environmental challenges.

The genesis of Indonesia’s energy policy dates back to 1976, with the primary goal of maximizing the efficiency of energy resource utilization [19]. Following this, the government established the National Energy Coordinating Board (Bakoren), which was composed of energy-related ministers and tasked with formulating energy policy, as well as supervising and reviewing its execution. In 1984, Bakoren released the initial General Policy on Energy (Kube), which has been regularly updated to conform to the nation's evolving socioeconomic realities [23]. A significant revision in 1990 expanded the program to include energy conservation, intensification, and diversification as core options. The subsequent Kube 1998 policy package introduced five primary policies: (1) Diversification, focusing on the use of both renewable and non-renewable sources while permitting fossil fuel imports for power generation under environmental safety limits; (2) Intensification, involving surveys and exploration to build new fossil fuel reserves; (3) Conservation efforts spanning upstream to downstream activities; (4) Market-based pricing through the establishment of a standard energy price; and (5) Environmental emphasis, prioritizing the use of non-depleting energy sources and dedicating attention to environmental considerations during energy sector growth.

The Indonesian administration expresses its policies not only through Presidential Proclamations (PP) but also through Presidential Regulations (Perpres), which possess binding legal force provided they are consistent with more stringent laws. A key environmental mandate was introduced through Presidential Decree No. 61/2011 concerning the National Action Plan for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions (RAN-GRK). This regulation serves as a framework for the planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of national initiatives aimed at reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

The management of Indonesia's energy resources is further governed by a robust judicial framework. Key legislation [24, 25] includes: Law No. 30/2007 on Energy, which mandates the establishment of a National Energy Policy (KEN) as the comprehensive guideline for national energy management; Law No. 30/2009 regarding the necessary reorganization of the national power industry; and Geothermal Law No. 21/2014, which reclassified geothermal exploitation from a mining activity to a non-mining one, enabling its extraction in conservation areas. Other foundational laws include Law No. 10/1997 on Nuclear Power, which separated the implementing (Batan) and supervisory (Bapeten) elements; Oil and Natural Gas Law No. 22/2001, which regulates commercial operations; and Law No. 4/2009 on mineral and coal mining, which compels mining business permit holders to engage in domestic processing. Environmental commitments were solidified by Law No. 6/1994, which ratified the climate change treaty and made it essential for Indonesia to declare its national GHG emission levels. The current administration of energy resources is significantly framed by Government Regulation (PP) No. 79/2014, which specifies the National Energy Policy for 2014–2050 and supersedes the previous Presidential Decree No. 5/2006. This policy outlines fundamental policies that include (1) ensuring sufficient energy availability, (2) prioritizing energy development, (3) utilizing national energy resources, and (4) establishing national energy reserves.

Relevant Literature and Research

The current section reviews previous academic investigations to contextualize the present study, focusing on the utility and implementation challenges of Actor-Network Theory (ANT) across diverse subfields, including sociology, science and technology studies (STS), and public policy. The primary objective of this literature review is to examine prior studies that utilized ANT to explore inter-organizational networks and renewable energy initiatives, thereby establishing a foundation to validate the core hypothesis: that the configuration and dynamics of the actor network constitute the most significant determinant of a technological development project's success.

ANT in Technology and Organizational Networks. Several researchers have utilized ANT to gain a deeper understanding of the interaction between technological innovation and social systems, particularly within the context of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for Development (ICT4D) and inter-organizational structures. A study assessed ANT's potential alongside other frameworks, proposing a holistic perspective for ICT4D research [26]. They argued that ANT is essential for analysing the "transformation process" inherent in technological adoption. Furthering this line of inquiry, other studies have focused on applying ANT to analyse technological innovations, such as wireless projects and accountability systems [27, 28, 29, 30].

Their collective findings reveal sophisticated managerial mechanisms – such as defining multivocal obligatory passage points (OPPs) and playing the role of a sustainability translator – associated with the four moments of translation (problematization, interest, enrolment, and mobilization). The theory's strength lies in providing both theoretical (socio-technical analysis) and methodological (socio-technical graph) tools for investigating the co-construction and parallel association of technological systems. Complementary research demonstrated that the network of players is not merely a blueprint for an information system but the actual vehicle used to carry out such a strategic plan, highlighting the perspectives of both human and non-human actors throughout the process [31, 32].

Methodological Scope and Sector-Specific Applications. Beyond ICT, the versatility of ANT has been demonstrated in specific academic and industrial settings. Sargani [8] applied ANT to examine the functioning of an engineering testing laboratory, noting that the laboratory is composed of both human and non-human actors (structures, apparatus, and machines) whose interactions either establish, sever, or select associations in accordance with the network's requirements. This application revealed the limitations of ANT in investigating network-forming processes that transcend the actions of individual nodes, necessitating a rigorous qualitative methodological approach when tracing actors. Research demonstrated ANT's applicability in investigating participation in online communities as a relational phenomenon, showing how the political process is centered on negotiation and how technology functions as a proactive actor in influencing human behaviours [33, 34].

ANT in Energy Systems Research. The application of ANT holds significant potential for energy research due to the sector’s complex interplay of environmental, technological, social, political, and economic components. Masuda and Ayarza [35]  conducted a review affirming ANT’s relevance for studying the energy industry, although noting its application has been primarily diagnostic, exploratory, qualitative, and analytic. They highlighted that most publications have concentrated on the reconstruction of historical events, with data collection focusing on records and, where possible, contacting historical players. Despite limited usage, they concluded that ANT contributes to a systemic understanding of energy projects by acknowledging that an energy system's role is determined by its interactions with other players, technological advancements, and societal norms. Echoing this potential, Wong [36] argued that an ANT approach: "...broadens the scope of analysis to include the larger web of people and things that co-constitute energy systems; (2) makes previously invisible actors and processes visible; (3) actively engages with ignorance and uncertainty within the context of scientific experimentation; and (4) identifies alternative ways of assembling technologies, people, and environments that are fairer and more sustainable."

Furthermore, studies applying ANT to renewable energy projects confirm its utility in highlighting conflicts and complexities. Iskandarova's work [37] on the development of Wave Hub, a renewable energy production process, illuminated the conflicts, contradictions, and antagonism inherent in developing new technologies, demonstrating that ANT provides a more comprehensive understanding of the political complexity involved in such planning. Similarly, Tyndall [38] investigation into the Irish wave energy case revealed that the network's efficiency is directly determined by the strength of the connections established between the various actors.

Synthesis and Research Validation

Collectively, the relevant literature presents a dichotomy: many view the actor network as an active component of the technological development process itself, while others regard it as a mere method of analyzing and producing technology. Regardless of this dual perspective, the studies consistently underscore the network's centrality in shaping project outcomes. The current research seeks to build upon this foundation by validating and further explaining how the network of actors involved in a technological development project – specifically within the dynamic and controversial Indonesian energy sector – is a key and direct component in determining that project's ultimate success.

Research Methodology

This study utilizes a qualitative research methodology to comprehend and interpret the dynamics of socio-technical change within the context of the Indonesian energy innovation revolution. Qualitative research, as described by Denzin and Lincoln [39] and Swift [40], is fundamentally focused on "the interpretation of occurrences in their natural settings in order to make sense in terms of the meanings that individuals bring to these contexts." This approach involves collecting rich data from sources such as personal experiences, introspections, interviews, observations, and textual interactions.

The methodology is selected for its capacity to fulfill key research objectives, which, according to Peshkin [41] and [42], include gaining a better understanding of particular conditions, setting the groundwork for interpretation by building novel concepts, allowing for validation of hypotheses by applying them to real-world situations, and enabling the evaluation of findings or inventions.

Analytical Framework: Actor-Network Theory (ANT)

The analytical framework employed is the Actor-Network Theory (ANT). ANT is a form of social constructivism that emphasizes the co-construction of entities and connections [43]. Its core methodological strength lies in its instruction to "follow the actors themselves" [3], which facilitates a deeper understanding of complex innovation processes. This framework is particularly appropriate for analyzing technological innovation due to its nuanced approach to scale, which effectively bridges the division between micro and macro levels, and its capacity to manage the contradiction between context and content [37].

Data Collection Strategy

The primary strategy for data collection was the in-depth interview. The scope of this research addresses the ongoing, continuously developing revolution in the Indonesian energy sector. Informants were strategically selected based on the criteria established by Smith & Gaya [44], which defines them as individuals possessing specialized knowledge, access to, and a willingness to share insights related to the studied issues. To understand the role of various organizational segments in policy reform, interviews were conducted with representatives from the 7th Commission of the House of Representatives, the Fiscal Agency of the Ministry of Finance, and PT PLN. A total of nine main informants were selected, including three representatives from each agency (Mr. A, Mr. B, and Mr. C from the House of Representatives; Mr. F, Mr. G, and Mr. H from the Ministry of Finance Fiscal Agency; and Mr. X, Mr. Y, and Mr. Z from PT. PLN). The consistency of responses across these resource persons confirmed that the required data saturation had been achieved.

The interview guide was structured directly upon the four components of the ANT's translation process:

Problematization Stage: Questions focused on how the congressmen framed the problem of the renewable energy controversy and how the House of Representatives involved other actors in the resolution process. Interest Stage: Questions centered on how the congressmen negotiated the interests of developing energy technology R&D with various players on behalf of society. Enrollment Stage: Questions explored the operation of the negotiation process and the manner in which the results were agreed upon by all involved parties to find a compromise on renewable energy innovation. Mobilization Stage: Questions addressed how they organized other passive actors to voice their opinions, with the aim of clarifying whether the interests of the House of Representatives Commission 7 were ultimately acknowledged and approved by all parties.

In addition to interviews, content analysis was used as a secondary method for data collection. Content analysis is a research methodology that seeks to provide an interpretation of the meaning conveyed in communications, irrespective of their form (words, photos, or symbols). This involved utilizing secondary sources such as news articles, internet publications, journal papers, and official reports to gain a comprehensive understanding of the contentious topic surrounding renewable energy in Indonesia.

Data Analysis and Verification

Data analysis followed the three concurrent streams of activity defined by Miles et al. [45]: data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing and verification.

Data Reduction: This process involves reducing, abstracting, and modifying the raw data obtained from field records. The initial selection of a conceptual framework, research objectives, and data collection strategy naturally initiates data reduction. Further measures included the preparation of summaries, information coding, cluster formation, and partition creation. This phase continued until the final report's completion. Data Display (Presentation): This is a systematic compilation of data that enables the drawing of conclusions. Miles et al. asserted that effective qualitative analysis requires precise representations such as graphs, networks, charts, and matrices. The data was meticulously formatted in a standardized and user-friendly manner, allowing the analyst to observe patterns and determine whether to draw a conclusion or continue the study. Conclusion Drawing and Verification: The final activity involves establishing the validity of the hypothesis. Verification can be a simple process, such as the researcher reflecting on field notes, or a more rigorous process, such as reviewing and brainstorming with colleagues to generate intersubjective agreements or intensively testing the consistency of findings. The core meanings that emerged from the data were tested against other data sets to ensure they were accurate, robust, and applicable. The final conclusions were not only drawn during the data collection phase but were continuously verified to ensure accuracy.

In reporting the interview results, this study utilizes the indirect method of quoting, where ideas or information obtained from sources are presented as summaries or interpretations of statements relevant to the research topic. The author meticulously documented and organized the informants' responses into distinct discussion points, which were then systematically classified and integrated based on their respective themes or topics using data processing techniques to ensure a more organized and understandable visualization of the findings.

Results

The central objective of this research was the systematic investigation into the manner by which the persistent Indonesian energy controversy influences and shapes the sector's ongoing technical transformation. To accomplish this, the Actor-Network Theory (ANT) was deployed as the primary analytical framework, providing a methodology for dissecting the relational roles of three critical human actants: the 7th Commission of the House of Representatives, the Fiscal Agency of the Ministry of Finance, and PT PLN (the state-owned electrical company). The empirical findings, derived from in-depth interviews with representatives from these foundational institutions, are systematically organized according to the four sequential phases of ANT's translation model, thereby tracing the emergence and stabilization of the socio-technical network.

Problematization and the Obligatory Passage Point

The inaugural phase of Problematization successfully converged upon the fundamental issue necessitating intervention: the deeply rooted inefficiency of the current energy fiscal policy coupled with an unsustainable, disproportionate reliance on conventional, non-renewable energy sources. This systemic vulnerability was dramatically exposed and intensified by a confluence of global factors, notably the Ukraine conflict, which propelled international fossil energy prices to historic, volatile peaks. The resulting external fiscal pressure compelled the Indonesian government to enact a significant policy adjustment, evidenced by the decision to raise subsidized fuel prices, with Pertalite increasing substantially from IDR 7,650 to IDR 10,000 per litre. This severe economic shock functioned as a powerful catalyst, overcoming existing institutional inertia and forcing a profound consensus among all interviewed informants (Fig.2).

The shared realization that emerged was the collective acknowledgment that "Indonesians need an alternative to the use of fuel oil." This collective and urgent imperative established the Obligatory Passage Point (OPP) for the entire socio-technical network—a non-negotiable requirement for a strategic shift toward substituting fossil fuels with reliably and continuously produced renewable energy sources. This step confirms the initial translation where actors' interests are defined by passing through a single point [2].

Fig. 2. The rise of fuel price in Indonesia

Рис. 2. Рост цен на топливо в Индонезии

Intersegments and the Opaque Financial Motives

Following the establishment of the OPP, the Intersegments phase sought to confirm the engagement of the human actants. The data confirmed that the 7th Commission, the Fiscal Agency, and PT PLN all demonstrated a potential interest in mitigating energy fiscal policy inefficiencies and promoting technological innovation, albeit their interests were structurally differentiated. The 7th Commission manifested a political interest by actively initiating and advancing research and new policies designed to support renewable energy development and sector-wide electrification. Conversely, the Fiscal Agency's interest was firmly rooted in the mandate of macro-economic stability and stewardship, focusing on assessing the overall impact of rising oil prices, ensuring fiscal responsibility, and evaluating potential revenue gains from adjusting fuel taxes.

Concurrently, PT PLN's operational interests were intrinsically linked to its core business costs, influenced by the critical fact that the Cost of Electricity Production (BPP) remains highly sensitive to fluctuations in global crude oil prices and the volatile Rupiah-to-Dollar exchange rate. Despite confirming these differentiated forms of engagement, a significant methodological limitation arose during this phase: the study found "it is difficult to establish a direct relationship between the funding factor and the interest phase in the current body of research" due to systemic constraints on information accessibility. This finding suggests that while political and operational interests were clearly articulated, the precise financial motives and allocations driving these interests remain partially opaque to external analysis.

Enrolments: Defining the Heterogeneous Network

The Enrolments phase, which is critical for achieving project consensus and stability within the network, successfully moved beyond mere acknowledgment of interest to establish the specific roles and expected contributions of all participating actants, encompassing both human and non-human elements. The roles were clearly defined along functional lines. Political Endorsement was secured through the 7th Commission's primary mandate to review, discuss, and endorse the proposed sustainable energy objectives, thereby committing a crucial political actant to the program.

The Fiscal Mandate was assigned to the Fiscal Agency, which was enrolled to assess the project's financial viability, determine specific funding requirements, and propose the necessary economic incentives, such as tax breaks or subsidies, essential for attracting private sector investment. Technical Implementation was designated to PT PLN, which was enrolled to evaluate the technical feasibility and commit to the full-scale adoption and incorporation of renewable energy technologies into its nationwide operational infrastructure. Furthermore, the network formally secured Societal Acceptance by enrolling the public through efforts aimed at increasing awareness and participation, recognizing their ultimate support as critical to the project’s long-term sustainability.

Critically, the study adhered to ANT's principle of Symmetry with Nature by enrolling non-human actants: Energy (i.e., the availability of sunlight, wind, and water) and the Planet (i.e., climate change imperatives and Paris Agreement goals) were both incorporated to define the project's fundamental environmental parameters and ensure strict alignment with global sustainability commitments [4].

Mobilization and Conditional Verification

The final moment of Mobilization, which focuses on organizing resources and translating objectives into large-scale collective action, presented the greatest challenge to the network's stability and function. The empirical findings necessitated a conclusion that "the current body of evidence does not provide sufficient support to conclusively establish that they have achieved a well-defined level of mobilization." This observation of a low level of discernible coordination suggests that the network, despite being successfully enrolled, has not yet fully coalesced or operationalized for sustained collective action, indicating a potential translation failure in the final stage [2].

Nevertheless, the study identified the potential for future mobilization by examining the actions of the actors' specialized representatives, often referred to as spokespersons. These individuals represent the mechanism through which the enrolled interests might ultimately be translated into policy and action. The 7th Commission Spokesperson mobilizes by actively advocating for policy and legislation and forming crucial coalitions with other legislative actors and civil society organizations to advance the green energy agenda. Fiscal Agency Experts mobilize by conducting rigorous research and economic analyses, leveraging their critical budget planning role to prioritize funding for green energy initiatives, and aligning complex financial strategies with national developmental objectives. Finally, PT PLN Management mobilizes by leveraging existing infrastructure and operational capabilities, while strategically forming key partnerships with renewable energy developers and technology providers to ensure the effective technical rollout of new systems.

The research's main hypothesis – that the 7th Commission can successfully support green energy development through various means – is therefore confirmed to be "contingent on the adoption of sustainable energy practices and the achievement of predetermined goals and objectives", requiring subsequent empirical verification through measurable outcomes. This finding underscores that the network's long-term effectiveness cannot be proven solely by enrolment; it requires subsequent empirical verification through measurable outcomes that demonstrate success in promoting ecological sustainability and fostering technical change.

Discussion

The application of the Actor-Network Theory (ANT) framework has demonstrated considerable efficacy in systematically charting the emergence and initial evolution of the socio-technical network configured in direct response to the enduring Indonesian energy controversy. A pivotal finding in this analysis was the establishment of the Obligatory Passage Point (OPP) during the Problematization phase. This OPP, defined as the imperative necessity for an alternative to fuel oil, was directly precipitated by the sustained period of high global energy prices and the subsequent, consequential domestic fuel subsidy reforms [46, 47]. Functioning as the crucial focal point, this necessity compelled the subsequent Enrollment of a diverse assemblage of both human and non-human actants [5]. Through this mechanism, these disparate entities were forced to align their varied interests – which span political objectives, economic stability, and environmental sustainability – around the singular goal of transitioning toward reliable and sustainable energy sources. The successful definition of this OPP underscores the power of a shared, undeniable external shock to initiate the first moment of translation, converting a diffuse controversy into a unified, network-bound problem.

The analytical process conducted across the initial translational moments offers compelling validation for the underlying research hypothesis, which postulates that the fundamental configuration and alignment of the actor network constitute the decisive factor in determining the ultimate success of the project. The successful navigation of the Problematization and Enrollment phases, characterized by the articulation of consensus and the clear assignment of specific roles, emphatically underscores the critical importance of robust actor alignment [18, 27]. This alignment was empirically established by identifying the 7th Commission’s endorsement as the indispensable political act required for legislative backing and the Fiscal Agency’s financial assessment as the non-negotiable prerequisite necessary to ensure the project’s fiscal viability and resource allocation. The integration of these two powerful, albeit structurally distinct, actants into the defined roles of political sponsor and financial guarantor is foundational to establishing the network's stability. Any failure to translate the interests of these core actors would inevitably lead to a reversal of the translation process, jeopardizing the entire green energy agenda.

Furthermore, the Enrollment phase's commitment to the fundamental ANT principle of generalized symmetry Murdoch [43] was demonstrably evident through the calculated inclusion of non-human actants. Actants such as Energy (representing resource availability, including sunlight, wind, and water) and the Planet (representing global climate change imperatives and Paris Agreement commitments) were formally enrolled into the network's structure. This symmetrical treatment of both social and material elements confirms that the project’s high-level objectives are not solely shaped by governmental policy or political consensus, but are simultaneously and intrinsically determined by economic constraints and fundamental ecological and natural resource parameters. This approach moves the analysis beyond socio-economic determinism, revealing a heterogeneous network where natural availability dictates feasibility and global climate treaties establish the ethical and temporal boundaries of the innovation.

Despite the successful initial articulation of the network, the analysis encountered notable constraints in fully characterizing its function across its later translational moments, particularly Interestment and Mobilization. The inherent difficulty in precisely assessing the link between the funding factor and the Interestment phase – a difficulty often encountered in studies involving opaque governmental and corporate financial data – and the subsequent, critical absence of a "well-defined level of mobilization" (as noted in the sub-result), suggests that the network, while successfully articulated and enrolled, has yet to fully translate [2, 48, 49, 50] its objectives into cohesive, coordinated, and visible collective action. The transition from established roles to demonstrable, synchronized activity represents a crucial test of network resilience. The lack of observed mobilization indicates that the political and financial commitment may remain rhetorical or fragmented, failing to secure the full compliance and synchronization of all enrolled actants, which is necessary for the network to achieve permanence.

Consequently, the definitive verification of the central research hypothesis – that the 7th Commission can successfully support green energy development through various legislative and policy means – remains fundamentally "contingent on the adoption of sustainable energy practices and the achievement of predetermined goals and objectives." To move beyond the qualitative assessment of network formation and decisively determine if the actor network’s established roles translate into tangible, successful outcomes for Indonesia’s ongoing energy transformation, future investigations must necessarily pivot toward rigorous empirical evaluation. This next phase must focus on quantifiable key indicators [1], including, but not limited to, "renewable energy capacity, carbon emission reductions, energy efficiency improvements, and public acceptability". Only through the systematic measurement and reporting of these indicators will researchers be able to provide measurable evidence of the network's collective success in achieving ecological sustainability and promoting the profound long-term systemic change required [35]. The final strength of the actor network rests not in its initial structural mapping, but in its ability to generate an observable, sustained, and positive effect upon the material reality it seeks to transform.

Conclusion and Policy Recommendations

Conclusion

This study successfully applied Actor-Network Theory (ANT) to analyses the complex, dynamic, and often controversial landscape of the Indonesian energy sector, particularly in the context of post-COVID-19 technical transformation. The ANT analysis provided a nuanced understanding of the energy controversy by mapping the intricate network of actors, which includes the 7th Commission of the House of Representatives, the Fiscal Agency of the Ministry of Finance, PT PLN, and other stakeholders like environmental activists and communities. This mapping demonstrates that the impact of the energy crisis and the pursuit of technological change are not driven solely by technological factors but are instead shaped by a complex interplay of social, political, and economic forces, thereby highlighting energy as a sociotechnical construct. The final inference is that the success of energy technology innovation and acceptance – including the shift to environmentally friendly electrical energy resources – is contingent upon the harmonization and shared urgency among all actors. According to the ANT framework, achieving this revolution requires all parties to recognize the national energy security issue as a common problem (Problematization) and to willingly contribute resources and actions (Intersegments and Enrolments) toward a unified energy strategy, thus translating policy goals into reality.

Policy Recommendations

Based on the ANT analysis, policy solutions are proposed to foster sustainable economic growth and drive transformative innovation in Indonesia's energy sector. First, the government must encourage regulations that promote renewable energy by designing energy policies that prioritize and compel the use of environmentally friendly electrical energy resources over oil-based sources, while also ensuring existing policies are properly implemented to maximize the effectiveness of power resource utilization. Second, it is critical to provide incentives and fiscal stimulus, such as offering incentives and fiscal support to encourage investment in the renewable energy sector, thereby ensuring the financial feasibility of environmentally friendly energy infrastructure and increasing access to finance and policy support specifically for NRE investment. Third, the government must increase collaboration and alignment by fostering substantial synergy among all actors (government, industry, research institutions, civil society) to ensure shared objectives and a unified outlook on energy policy harmonization, requiring all actors to make a substantial contribution commensurate with their duties and responsibilities to facilitate the transition away from oil-based energy sources. Fourth, a more inclusive and holistic approach is needed to promote public participation and transparency by encouraging public involvement in decision-making processes and ensuring the involvement of local communities to align policy implementation with societal acceptance. Finally, Indonesia’s energy policies must align with international commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate change, contributing to global efforts.

Limitations and Future Research

This study has several limitations that provide clear avenues for future research. The findings and conclusions regarding actor interactions and obstacles may be unique to the Indonesian context (e.g., its archipelagic geography) and may not be fully applicable to other regions or countries (Context Specificity). Furthermore, because the process of developing and changing energy regulations in Indonesia is still ongoing, this study was unable to definitively identify and describe in detail each phase of the escalating energy debate (such as full enrolment and mobilization), reflecting the dynamic nature of policy development. Finally, the research paper may have a narrow focus or scope, potentially overemphasize the roles of government and state-owned enterprises while potentially overlook the specific contributions of private-sector organizations or local communities. Future research should therefore consider adopting a longitudinal approach to fully capture the changing dynamics of ANT phases as energy regulations are formalized and implemented. Moreover, the findings should be interpreted using the perspective of Science and Technology Studies (STS) to further explore the complex relationship between actor networks and technological advancements in other sociotechnical domains.