Introduction

The current level of relations between Russia and China, which is positioned by both sides as "high", has not always been that way. States have a long history of cooperation, which is characterized by periods of mutual rapprochement, active beneficial interaction, as well as periods of cooling, sometimes even confrontation. It is important to take this into account when analyzing modern relations, including trade and economic ones. One of the determining factors influencing development of relations between states is the historical heritage. Understanding history contributes to a more accurate prediction of possible trade and economic ties between Russia and China. It is only on the basis of accumulated experience and identified patterns that it is possible to draw reasonable conclusions about the real interests of countries in maintaining interconnections and developing active cooperation. As noted by A.I. Denisov, Russian Ambassador to China: "Having achieved such a significant progress in our bilateral relations, it is appropriate, in accordance with Chinese wisdom – "when you drink water, remember the source" – to look back on the path taken" [1, p. 7].

As a result of the last visit to China in 2024 by the President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin and his meeting with the Chairman of China Xi Jinping, fifteen packages of bilateral cooperation were discussed and signed[1].

Despite active partnership relations in many areas, in the trade and economic area of cooperation, according to 2019 data, the main trading partner of the Russian Federation is the People's Republic of China, but Russia is in 11th place in the list of China's main partners in terms of trade turnover [2, p. 47]. This trend still exists today. Therefore, China is a priority area of foreign trade and economic policy for Russia, while Russia is not for China.

The purpose of the study is to identify and characterize the stages of development of Russian-Chinese trade and economic relations. Based on the established historical experience, having identified its patterns, it became possible to draw certain conclusions about the current state and development of Russian-Chinese trade and economic relations.

Methods

The object of the research is the study of the stages of Russian-Chinese trade relations. The authors of the paper have set a task of a retrospective analysis of trade and economic relations between the two countries. This analysis will enable new researchers to identify the main directions and prospects of the People's Republic of China's interest in trade relations with the Russian Federation.

Based on a retrospective analysis of the above issues using Chinese sources, the stages of development of Russian-Chinese trade and economic relations are identified and characterized, general trends in trade relations between the two countries are revealed, and conclusions are made about the current state and development of Russian-Chinese trade and economic relations.

In the analysis of the history of Russian-Chinese trade and economic relations was used the method of retrospective analysis. The analytical generalization of historical and political science material made it possible to study the general trend of trade relations between two countries.

Materials

The basis for the retrospective analysis of Russian-Chinese relations were works of Akhmadeev B.A., Gayazov I.R. [3], Vasilyeva N.I. [2], Moldovan A.A. [4], Paramonov V. and Strokov A. [5], Popova I.F. [6], Sankovets A.A. and Xu Li. [7], Sladkovsky M.I. [8], Wang Xiaoqi [9] and Liu Xiao [10]. Of particular note is the collection of official documents on Russian-Chinese relations from 1689 to 1916 [11] and the collection “Russia and China: Four Centuries of Interaction” edited by A. V. Lukin [1], which present a historical picture of the interaction between Russia and China. The current challenges and problems of trade and economic relations between China and Russia that have arisen since 1992 are presented in the study of Chinese author Cui Long, who assesses the economic situation and prospects of trade and economic relations between China and Russia [12].

There are several periods in the relationship between Russia and China, each of which has its own characteristic features. According by Akhmadeev B.A. and Gayazov I.R., employees of the Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, the following periods are distinguished: pre-revolutionary, Soviet times and the modern stage [3, p. 14]. The first attempts to establish communication with China were made back in the XVIth century by Ivan the Terrible, who sent two missions to find ways to China. Precisely in those times fundamental changes began to take place in Eurasia. Even then, certain changes began to occur on the territory of Eurasia; in particular, in 1587 the city of Tobolsk and other fortifications were built. In the XVIIth century, the Russian Empire has already established a presence in Siberia and the Far East by annexing vast territories, which opened ways to the countries of Central Asia. The Chinese government treated the Russian settlers, who were located near the border of China, in an unfriendly manner. In this regard, the first step towards the beginning of diplomatic cooperation was the establishment of the Russian embassy in Beijing in 1618, which was headed by Siberian Cossack Ivan Petlin [13, р. 66]. The embassy was not a success, as Ivan was not granted access to the imperial court. Chinese officials explained this by stating that the embassy had not prepared appropriate gifts for the head of the Celestial Empire. However, Petlin did not leave without some good news – he was able to receive a letter from the emperor, which granted permission for mutual trade relations. Despite the limited success, a first step towards reconciliation was nevertheless taken.

Results

One of the most significant events of the pre-revolutionary period was the conclusion of the first treaty in the history of Russian-Chinese relations in 1689 in Nerchinsk. Traditionally, the beginning of trade and economic relations between Russia and China is considered to be from this date, since thanks to the Nerchinsk Treaty, trade relations became official and open [9]. It was at this time that the borders between the two empires were first established, which was a major point of the treaty. According to Paramonov, the initial basis of Russian-Chinese relations was "cooperation on border issues". The 1689 treaty also addressed issues such as resolving disputes and conducting trade. Russia was a major supplier of fur to China, while the Chinese Empire in turn offered Russia the opportunity to purchase silk and a wide variety of tea. This indicates the mutual trade interests of the two countries. The agreement itself was ambiguous. Russian researchers consider this to be unequal and inconsistent with the norms of negotiation. There was no exchange of maps or texts in different languages, and the interpretation varied. This demonstrates the particular caution of the imperial government in conducting relations with another state, despite the really existing trade interest.

The next significant event of the pre-revolutionary period was the signing of the Kyakhta Treaty in 1727. The document legitimized the border trade issues, which became free for merchants: "... as agreed with the Russian ambassador, Count Savoy Vladislavovich of Illyria, merchants would be free to travel between two empires..." [11, p. 19]. Also, according to the fourth paragraph of the text, the Russian government sent trade caravans to Beijing three times a year and constant trade activity took place on the borders in cities such as Kyakhta and Tsurukhaitu. Tea was still the most important imported commodity from China to Russia at that time. Until the XXth century, the tea trade accounted for 88% of the total volume of Russian-Chinese trade.

In 1730, construction of the Chinese trading city of Maimachen, located on the border with Kyakhta, began in order to conduct business with Russia. The further development of Kyakhta and Maimachen led to the active growth of cross-border trade between Russia and China. In the 1730s, there was already a noticeable increase in the volume of imports and exports of goods. For example, in 1736–1740, an average of 1,430 carts and 96 sleds of Russian goods were delivered to Kyakhta each year, while 806 carts and 37 sleds of Chinese goods were imported. In 1741–1745, the number of Russian goods amounted to 1,200 carts per year, and Chinese – to 944 [6, p. 28].

In 1732, the Chinese government sent its first diplomatic delegation to Russia. After seeing the capital of the empire and learning about the way of life, scientific and educational achievements of the people, the Chinese were even more interested in cooperation. At the same time, the perception of Russia by the Chinese has changed for the better – now it is no longer seen as a "barbaric" country, but rather as a major power. The XVIIIth century saw a period of active trade between Russia and China, which greatly influenced the development of the economies of both countries. Russia continued to import large quantities of fur and cloth, as well as exporting tea, silk, cotton products, and other goods.

However, despite the success, it is worth noting that the Kyakhta trade also had some contradictions. After all, initially, the interests of the two countries regarding mutual trade were quite different. Russia's goal was to achieve economic growth, address the shortage of goods, and develop industry, where the money received from trade in Kyakhta was invested. Russia has managed to increase its production capacity and change the structure of its imports and exports through industrial modernization. At the same time, the Chinese government primarily invested in establishing imperial control over the country, strengthening and securing its borders, and suppressing rebellions. Unlike Russia, China did not focus on industrial development, instead employing the majority of its workforce in agriculture. It is also worth noting that during the 1790s, merchants who traded in Kyakhta and Maimachen received instructions from Beijing regarding the conduct of trade with Russia. They had to introduce quotas for the sell products, increase prices, and misinform Russian merchants about the current state of the Chinese market. According to experts, the tightening of regulations is due to China's traditional focus on agriculture rather than trade. This suggests that the Chinese government may not have fully understood the trends in the global market. During the XVIIIth century, there was still no direct contact between Russia and China, which prevented the establishment of strong trade and economic relations.

At the beginning of the XIXth century, discussions about the Russian-Chinese border arose again. Due to the outbreak of the Second Opium War in China, Russia felt the need to protect its Far East from the arrival of merchant ships from Western countries. In 1858, the Treaty of Aigun was signed, establishing the transfer of the Left-Bank Amur River to Russia and regulating Russian-Chinese trade in the Amur region. According to the treaty, only Russian and Chinese vessels were allowed to sail on the Amur, Sungari, and Ussuri rivers, and for mutual friendship, it was allowed to trade the products of both states living in the valleys of these rivers [11, p. 30]. Almost simultaneously with the signing of the Treaty of Aigun, the Treaty of Tientsin was also signed. According it, Russia was able to conduct not only land-based, but also maritime trade with China, through the ports of Shanghai, Fuzhou, and Guangzhou, among others.  Overland trade was no longer limited by "the number of persons involved, the amount of goods imported, or the capital invested" [11, p. 31]. However, overland trade has become less significant due to the high costs of transportation.

Additionally, according to the agreement, Russia has offered military assistance in the form of weapons and training of Chinese troops and officers. For this purpose, a mission was sent to China led by N.P. Ignatiev, a Russian statesman. However, after the victory over the British and French at Dagu, the Chinese began to feel stronger and refused to help, and they began to think about revising the previously signed treaties. But not for long after the next setback, Chinese officials began to seek help again in the form of Russian citizen N.P. Ignatiev. In other words, not only trade and border relations began to develop between Russia and China, but also military and political relations. And the development of comprehensive cooperation contributes, in particular, to the strengthening of trade and economic relations.

With the accession of Alexander III to power, Russian-Chinese relations received a fresh impetus in their development. Sergei Witte, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, was greatly interested in economic cooperation with China. It was thanks to his initiative that the Russian-Chinese bank was founded in 1895. And in 1896, an agreement was signed on the construction of the CER[2]. These events had a significant impact on the economic and political cooperation between the two empires. It is noted that the CER disrupted the Kyakhta trade, but at the same time, it saved the overland route for the import and export of goods due to the speed of delivery between the western part of Russia and China. This contributed to the growth of Russian-Chinese trade.

According to the results of the study by B.A. Akhmadeeva and Gayazova I.R., «... in the last years of the Russian Empire, China became an important trading partner of Moscow: China accounted for 2,1% of Russian exports and 6.1% of imports. At the end of the 19th century Russia was one of the largest foreign investors in the economy of Northeast China, accounting for 30,3% of all foreign investments in that region» [3, p. 14].

Despite the strengthening and stabilisation of relations between Russia and China, there was a cooling period at the very end of the XIXth century and the beginning of the XXth century. In 1898, there were uprisings in China. The Western powers sent troops to put them down, with Russia's support. It was a double blow to China, as Russia is a reliable ally. As a result, anti-Russian feelings flared up and relations between the two countries became strained.

The Soviet period began with economic decline in Russia, due to the establishment of a new governmental system. Russia saw the newly established relations with China as a potential solution to the current situation. Negotiations began and in 1920 the Ili Agreement, that reflected the agreed-upon terms of trade between the parties, was signed. Despite China's interest in the Soviet market, the Chinese government was reluctant to actively cooperate and chose to wait for the recognition of the Soviet state by other countries. However, the poor economic situation in China has become the reason to meet Russia halfway. By 1924, trade turnover had increased by 34% compared to the pre-revolutionary period. China began exporting silk, tobacco, fur, and tea to Russia and importing industrial goods and petroleum products.

In the 1930s, relations between the two countries became even closer, as both Russia and China were interested in opposing Japan's aggressive military policy. In both 1937 and 1945, when Japan attacked China, the Soviet Union provided all possible support. This included loans to China, for which the Chinese government used to buy weapons and military equipment from the Soviet Union.

In 1949, China experienced significant internal political changes, transforming from an empire to the People's Republic of China. The Chairman of the People's Republic of China, Mao Zedong, and Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, shared similar political views. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union provided all possible assistance to the Chinese Communist Party, contributing to the development of China's scientific, technical, and professional potential. At the same time, Russia continued to provide military and technical assistance. China, in turn, exported textiles, light industrial products, and non-ferrous metals to the Soviet market. It was then that the foundation of the partnership was laid, when China saw Soviet Russia as a role model, a loyal and reliable partner in the fight against external enemies. Positioning Moscow as a key "friend", Mao Zedong emphasized: "It is essential for us to develop Sino-Soviet relations and strengthen our friendship. China needs to be built, and we need the comprehensive support of the Soviet Union" [10, p. 64]. In the 1950s, the Soviet Union provided significant financial assistance to China in the form of a loan of approximately 2 billion rubles. These funds were invested in the construction of over 250 businesses and other facilities, as well as the development of the aviation, automotive, and other industries.

In the second half of the 1950s, tensions between the countries began to rise again, as both ideological and economic differences emerged. After N. S. Khrushchev exposed the cult of Stalin, the Chinese government questioned the reliability of Soviet-Chinese relations. After all, undermining the reputation of Joseph Stalin meant undermining the authority of Mao Zedong and Chinese socialism as a whole. Since Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev came to power, the approach to domestic policy and the international situation has changed significantly. The Soviet Union promoted peaceful and cooperative relations, while China created tensions and revolutionary sentiments, which it saw as the foundation for building socialism. Such disagreements led to misunderstandings and deterioration of relations over the course of nearly three decades.

Regarding the economic sphere of cooperation, in 1959, the USSR announced the termination of all agreements related to nuclear issues, as well as assistance and support issues. The extent of the deterioration in relations is reflected in the following statistics: "The volume of trade in 1962 was only about 5% of the 1959 level. By 1965, trade turnover had decreased by four times compared to 1960 and had dropped below the level of 1950. In 1966, the USSR accounted for only 7% of the total foreign trade turnover of the People's Republic of China (less than 300 million rubles), whereas in 1959 the share of the Soviet Union was approximately 50% [1, p. 245].

Deep-seated resentments and a lack of willingness to move closer have resulted in acute border issues. In the spring of 1969, there were disputes over the ownership of Damansky Island, where bloody clashes between the Soviet Union and China took place. At that time, China's foreign policy direction underwent a dramatic change – now China was moving towards the United States and even Japan.

The first steps towards improving Soviet-Chinese relations were made only in 1979, and significant improvements were seen only after the end of the perestroika period in the Soviet Union. In 1989, Mikhail Gorbachev paid an official visit to China, during which the heads of state discussed the future direction of cooperation between the two countries. Russia was admitted as an equal partner again in 1991 after the collapse of the USSR, when China recognized Russia as the legitimate successor of the Soviet Union. It was then that a modern stage in Russian-Chinese relations began.

Today, Russian-Chinese relations are based on a modern model that is based on the principles of "strategic cooperation" and "partnership". These principles were first introduced by President of the Russian Federation Boris Yeltsin in a personal letter to President of the People's Republic of China Jiang Zemin. In 2010, the relationship between Russia and China started to be described as "comprehensive strategic partnership". In 2012, some statements began to include words like "equal" and "trusting" [14, p. 22].

Conclusion

Therefore, a retrospective analysis of Russian-Chinese trade and economic relations was conducted. Historical facts really confirm the complex nature of Russian-Chinese relations. In retrospect, it is possible to highlight the problems of trade and economic relations that exist to this day. These include the problem of transportation due to the remoteness of Central Russia from China, the dependence of trade on the internal state of states and other external factors. However, it is worth noting that after each period of tension in trade and economic relations between Russia and China, both states sought to find a compromise and come to the harmonization of relations. The following stages of trade and economic relations between the countries can be distinguished: pre-revolutionary, Soviet period and the modern stage. Historically, Russian-Chinese trade and economic cooperation was built on the principles of friendship and mutual understanding, which gives grounds to talk about the possibility of further positive trends in this direction.

[1] Визит Владимира Путина в Китай (2024) // Википедия. Свободная энциклопедия: [сайт]. URL: https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Визит_Владимира_Путина_в_Китай_(2024) (дата обращения: 15.03.2025).

[2] China-Eastern Railway